Culture

Since the increase in regional tension, the strikes targeting Iran in 2025, and the latest popular uprising in Iranian cities, authorities have multiplied emergency measures around museums. The aim was to protect invaluable heritage from the risks of bombing, sabotage, or even looting. Concretely, this translated into prolonged closures, reduced hours, meticulously supervised visits, and the discreet transfer of some major pieces to secret reserves. This bunkerization reflex is part of a deeper and older climate of tension and crisis, marked for decades by a tightening of the cultural space throughout the country. Museums Caught in a Vice Cultural institutions are currently caught in a double bind: the threat of war, internal upheavals, and the diplomatic and ideological priorities of the government. Indeed, the Islamic Republic seeks, on the one hand, to promote an identity strategy based on a reinterpretation of Persian nationalism, and on the other hand, to counter 'Iranophobia' by emphasizing its heritage, historical depth, and artistic production. Iran's entire cultural and art policy adheres to this new identity strategy, perfectly illustrated by the Museum of the Islamic Revolution and Sacred Defense in Tehran, which combines memorial, political education, and tourist product. Internationally, acquisitions, loans, and exhibitions of Persian artworks constitute major events, such as the loan of the invaluable Cyrus Cylinder (539 BC) or the exhibition « Forgotten Empire: The World of Ancient Persia », organized by the British Museum a few years ago…etc The government of the Islamic Republic uses these events as tools of cultural diplomacy to serve its ideological priorities, which sometimes creates a field of tension and political blackmail. Iran's archaeological heritage is very rich, and its museums are numerous (over 800), including the National Museum of Iran, the Museum of Contemporary Art, the Golestan Palace…etc. We have chosen two museums in Tehran that are typical of Iran's history: The Treasury or National Jewelry Museum and the National Museum of Iran. The National Jewelry Treasury Inaugurated in 1937, during the Shah's era, as a showcase of monarchical power, the National Jewelry Treasury of the Shahs brings together the legacies of the Safavid, Afsharid, Qajar, and Pahlavi dynasties: crowns, inlaid thrones, extravagant adornments, legendary diamonds… It is located in the basement of the Central Bank of Iran's headquarters on Ferdowsi Street, Tehran. It is legally attached to the Central Bank, which is its legal custodian. In the 1930s, the value of the collection was such that it served as a reserve for the national currency. Even today, part of the currency's legitimacy symbolically rests on this stock of physical assets, which cannot be valued at market price. Fabulous Jewels The collection includes invaluable pieces, among which are the Kiani Crown of the Qajar rulers, emblematic of the 19th-century Persian monarchy, or the Pahlavi Crown used for the coronation of Reza Shah and Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, made of gold and silver, set with thousands of diamonds, emeralds, rubies, and rare pearls. In addition to these precious pieces are fairy-tale thrones like the Peacock Throne which is a solid gold Qajar throne, covered with diamonds, rubies, emeralds, and pearls, a major symbol of Persian royalty. It takes its name from a peacock motif or from the nickname given to Fath Ali Shah. The treasury also includes a Terrestrial Globe of 34 kg of gold and approximately 6 kg of precious stones, diamonds, rubies, and emeralds to illustrate the seas and lands of the globe. Not to mention the Shield and Sword of Nader Shah made of rhinoceros hide, 46 cm in diameter, also covered with diamonds, rubies, and emeralds, with one of the world's largest rubies (approx. 225 carats) at the center of the shield, as well as countless adornments, swords, shields, ceremonial objects, and tableware made of precious metals.. and extremely rare precious stones like the famous pink diamond Darya-ye Noor (or Sea of Light) of 182 carats, considered the world's largest pink diamond, etc. All these jewels tell of opulence and wealth, but also the extravagance of a monarchy that measured itself against European courts. After the Revolution, the Islamic Republic converted this symbol, which it considered 'reviled,' into a 'national treasure,' now meant to embody the wealth of the nation rather than that of a single family. In our next article, we will talk about the National Museum of Iran and the (difficult) role that museum curators are called upon to play.

The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque in Abu Dhabi is one of the most iconic landmarks of the United Arab Emirates. A true architectural masterpiece, it welcomes nearly 7 million visitors a year, 82% of whom are international tourists. Beyond its grandeur, the mosque serves as a platform for interfaith dialogu and the promotion of universal human values. The mosque’s story begins in the 1980s, when Sheikh Zayed bin Sultan Al Nahyan, the founding father of the United Arab Emirates, envisioned a place of worship that would symbolize the moderation of Islam. His vision was clear: to create a building that promotes tolerance and cultural exchange while blending the cultural diversity of the Islamic world with both historical and contemporary architectural and artistic values. Construction took eleven years, finally concluding in December 2007. Sheikh Zayed, who passed away in 2004, is buried in the courtyard of the mosque he commissioned. The Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque impresses as much for its beauty as for its scale. Covering more than 12 hectares (120,000 square meters), it can accommodate nearly 55,000 worshippers, making it one of the largest mosques in the world. A Collective Construction Project The mosque’s creation was a global endeavor, involving nearly 3,000 workers and 38 local and international companies. Renowned professionals, artists and craftsmen from countries including Syria, India, Italy, Germany, Turkey, Pakistan, Malaysia, Iran, China, the United Kingdom, New Zealand and North Macedonia contributed to the project. (Photo Mohamed Zarandah / Anadolu via AFP) The result is a harmonious blend of different Islamic architectural styles. The mosque features 82 domes of varying sizes, some reaching up to 85 meters in height. Four minarets, each over 100 meters tall, rise at the corners of the courtyard, while more than 1,000 columns support the structure. Delicate floral mosaics adorn the courtyard, and the capitals of the columns are decorated with gilded palm flowers. The mosque’s steel and concrete framework is entirely clad in Carrara marble, renowned as the purest white marble in the world. The central courtyard, covering 17,080 square meters, is also paved with this marble, giving the building an unparalleled brilliance. Interior Refinement The façade is equipped with an innovative nocturnal lighting system. Following the lunar cycle, the lights gradually shift from a cold white at full moon to a deep blue by the fourteenth night. The interior decoration adheres strictly to Islamic principles: there are no human or animal representations, but floral and geometric patterns and arabesques enrich the space. Pointed arches embellish the structure, and 12,100 molded of plaster and fiberglass panels covers the interior. The 1,048 ornamental columns, sculpted by local artisans, are inlaid with semi-precious stones. The ceiling of the grand prayer hall is supported by 24 columns clad in white marble and inlaid with mother-of-pearl. The 99 names of God (Allah) are inscribed on the subtly illuminated qibla wall. Spectacular chandeliers are adorned with Swarovski crystals and 40 kilograms of 24-carat gold, the main chandelier being the largest in the world. The Persian carpet in the grand prayer hall is a masterpiece. Covering 5,627 square meters, it is the largest hand-woven carpet in the world, with an estimated value of 8.5 million dollars. Intercultural Dialogue Since its opening, the mosque has become a major cultural tourism destination, ranking among the world’s most sought-after attractions and the leading cultural and religious site in the Middle East. Beyond its religious role and architectural splendor, the mosque remains true to its mission of intercultural dialogue. The Jusoor program (“roots” in Arabic, ed.), launched in 2019, is a prime example. Through this initiative, individuals and institutions from diverse backgrounds are invited to experience a unique religious and cultural journey, fostering mutual understanding and the promotion of universal human values. The site also houses the Sheikh Zayed Grand Mosque Center, a learning center with a library housing classical works and publications in several languages, including Arabic, English, French, and Italian. More than a cultural landmark, the Grand Mosque embodies the values of tolerance, openness, and peaceful coexistence that Sheikh Zayed sought to pass on to future generations. It remains a living symbol of his enduring legacy.

The Louvre Abu Dhabi sits at the heart of a deliberate strategy to establish the Emirate as an international cultural hub. The museum embodies Abu Dhabi’s ambition to position itself as a bridge between civilizations, aiming to transcend the image of an Emirati society seen as “purely oil-driven” and to assert an identity firmly oriented towards global culture. It is a major art institution, conceived as a universal museum, highlighting the interactions of human creativity across cultures, civilizations, religions, eras, and prejudices. Layout and Scenography At the Louvre Abu Dhabi, artworks are displayed according to a distinctive curatorial approach that emphasizes universal narratives – such as creation, religion, power, and exchange – rather than rigid geographic divisions. This represents an unsual approach for an art museum. The galleries are organized into thematic and chronological chapters, allowing works from the East and West to be displayed side by side, fostering an intercultural dialogue grounded both in Abu Dhabi’s vision of openness and in French museological expertise. As the first universal museum in the Arab world, it offers a global and comparative reading of art history, rather than a strictly national or western narrative. The Collections The museum houses a constantly expanding collection of more than 600 exceptional artworks and artifacts, spanning the history of humanity across all categories. A portion of these works come on loan from the Louvre in Paris and more than thirteen other French institutions. Exhibits are regularly rotated to maintain public interest, making the museum a dynamic and particularly engaging space. The Louvre Abu Dhabi operates on a long-term partnership between the Abu Dhabi government and the Louvre in Paris. This collaboration encompasses loans of artworks, scientific expertise, and support for programming, as well as the organization of complex temporary exhibitions curated in collaboration with various European museums. Iconic Loans Around 300 major works were loaned by thirteen French institutions for the museum’s early years. Among them are “ La Belle Ferronnière ” by Leonardo da Vinci, “Napoleon Crossing the Saint Bernard Pass”, a masterpiece by Jacques-Louis David’s masterpiece, “ The Gare Saint-Lazare ” by Claude Monet, Van Gogh’s self-portrait, and works by Manet, Kandinsky, Matisse, Rothko, Andy Warhol, Dürer, Titian, to name only the most renowned. The collection also includes historical objects, such as a golden bowl from the Achaemenid Empire and a caravel. By 2025, the museum further expanded its collection through new acquisitions and international loans, notably including Christian sarcophagi and modern paintings. Acquired Artworks by the Museum Between 2023 and 2025, the museum strengthened its academic credibility through new permanent acquisitions. These include, among others, a two-headed statue from Ain Ghazal dating back 8,000 years, and a colossal bust of Ramses II from the Pharaonic era. The museum also acquired one of the jewels of Baroque art, “The Little Girl with a Brazier” by Georges de La Tour, alongside several sculptures by Rodin and various works by Kandinsky, Giacometti, and paintings by Picasso. Educational Services, Training, and Academic Partnerships Beyond a simple cultural visit, the museum serves as a pedagogical center and offers continuing education for schools across the Emirates. A variety of educational programs and training courses are provided for teachers, helping them to use the museum space as a complement to the school curriculum and fostering the development of critical thinking among students. The Louvre Abu Dhabi has also developed university partnerships, including a memorandum of understanding with NYU Abu Dhabi (via an MoU), as well as a collaboration with Sorbonne Abu Dhabi/École du Louvre to offer a professional master’s degree in “Museum Professions”, the first program of its kind in the Gulf. Moreover, it is worth highlighting the inclusive mission of the museum, which, through its “Louvre Abu Dhabi for All” program, offers special performances accessible to people with special needs. In conclusion, the Louvre Abu Dhabi stands as a globally significant satellite museum that combines culture, education, academic research, and soft power. It occupies a central role as a heritage institution, an educational hub, and an international showcase for the United Arab Emirates.

The Louvre Abu Dhabi is a universal art museum located on Saadiyat Island, the aptly named 'Island of Happiness', which aims to become the new cultural center of the UAE. With its temporary exhibitions co-organized with major French museums and its 'universal' discourse, the museum contributes to the soft power of the United Arab Emirates and to the redefinition of the Arab world's place in international art and heritage circuits. The origins The Louvre Abu Dhabi is the result of an intergovernmental agreement between France and the United Arab Emirates, which allows the latter to use the name "Louvre" until 2047. The Museum, poetically nicknamed “The Louvre of the Sands”, tells the story of humanity through works from various civilizations, spanning a period from prehistory to contemporary art. From the outset, the idea of branding the name of the world's largest museum had provoked an outcry in France. It took a lot of effort and no less than a billion euros to convince the most reluctant. In return for this colossal sum, the contract provides for the use of the Louvre label for 30 years, as well as the loan of works from various French museums, alongside temporary exhibitions and cooperation in museum management and on-site staff training. The Museum officially opened its doors to the public on November 11, 2017, after a decade of work, with approximately 600 works presented at the inauguration. The design of the museum T he Louvre Abu Dhabi was designed by Jean Nouvel, the star architect of the last fifty years. Nouvel used the serenity created by the interplay of shadows and light to create a welcoming space that integrates with the country's history and geography. A typical UAE Museum that would have no place in Paris, London or New York. He absolutely did not want a museum with purely European architecture installed in Abu Dhabi. Inspired by the architecture and traditions of the Emirates, Nouvel created a remarkable setting for the Louvre Abu Dhabi that respects the essential technical constraints of modern museums. To do this, he built a museum-city spanning approximately 24,000 m², including 8,000 m² of galleries, which seems to float on water. The different rooms of the museum are typical low white buildings of the region between which visitors can stroll. Designed as an Arab medina, accessible both by sea and land, the Museum features spaces dedicated to a multitude of activities (kayaking, film screenings, conferences, etc.) in addition to art galleries. The dome An immense silver dome of steel and aluminum, a true architectural masterpiece, covers the various buildings. Despite its apparent lightness, the dome weighs approximately 7,500 tons (the same weight as the Eiffel Tower) and measures 180 meters in diameter. Inspired by the characteristic cupola of Arab architecture, the dome is a complex geometric structure of 7,850 stars of different sizes, with the pattern repeating across eight superimposed layers. These patterns allow the sun to filter through their perforations and layering. This is an ode to nature and the elements that echoes the palm trees of Abu Dhabi. Just like palm leaves in oases, the dome intercepts the dazzling sunlight, diffuses it, and scatters it to the ground, creating a "rain of light" that changes with the hours. This steel giant is inspired by traditional Arab mashrabiyas and offers visitors a visual and thermal climate. Despite its imposing size, it seems to float on water because it rests on four invisible support points. Natural air conditioning The main technical challenge for the Louvre Abu Dhabi is the climate, as strict light and temperature conditions must be maintained for the conservation of priceless works. Beyond its beauty, the dome creates an environmental microclimate thanks to passive design techniques inspired by traditional regional architecture. The roof perforations allow natural lighting without excessive heat or airflow, and the floor and wall materials help retain cool air at all hours of the day. The Museum also uses passive water and energy saving techniques, as well as advanced HVAC and lighting systems. Next article: The Louvre Abu Dhabi, a bridge between civilizations

The looting of Iraq’s National Museum in 2003 led to the loss of priceless artefacts and triggered a domino effect, manifested in the widespread plundering of archaeological sites across the country. This, in turn, fueled the international trafficking of antiquities and severely hampered scientific research in the field. The episode has since become an emblematic case of the political responsibility borne by occupying forces in wartime, the emergence of an economy built around the illicit antiquities trade serving organized crime and terrorism, and, in parallel, the development of a “recovery diplomacy” involving international cooperation to secure the return of stolen objects. The National Museum of Iraq is one of the world’s most important archaeological institutions. It houses the core of Mesopotamian heritage, from a region often described as the “cradle of humanity”. The museum was founded in the 1920s, alongside the emergence of the modern Iraqi state, by Gertrude Bell, a British writer and archaeologist. Her aim was to prevent the treasures of Mesopotamia from being removed from the country. The main building, covering approximately 45,000 square meters, spans 5,000 to 7,000 years of history and contains the most comprehensive collection of Mesopotamian artefacts in existence. Its holdings include objects from the Sumerian, Akkadian, Babylonian, Assyrian and Chaldean civilizations, as well as from pre-Islamic and Islamic periods. The museum contains major works – including cuneiform tablets, cylinder seals, royal statues and funerary objects – which constitute essential evidence for the history of writing, state formation, law and religion in the Near East. Among these holdings are the Nimrud gold treasure, comprising jewelry and artefacts dating from the 9th century BC, as well as sculptures, reliefs and cuneiform tablets from Uruk and other major Mesopotamian sites. The museum stands as a symbol of national unity and of continuity between Sumer, Akkad, Babylon, the Islamic era and contemporary Iraq. It also serves as a research and documentation center for archaeologists, holding vital archives relating to excavations at Ur, Uruk, Nineveh and Nimrud. The 2003 Looting: Geopolitical Stakes There is only one word to describe the looting of the museum in 2003: catastrophe. US troops had, in principle, been ordered to give priority protection to the museum. In practice, however, security was not put in place until a week after coalition forces entered Baghdad - a week too late, during which the looting took place. Between 10 and 12 April 2003, before the site was secured by US forces and after museum staff had withdrawn, approximately 15,000 objects disappeared, including ritual vessels, Assyrian ivories, statue heads, amulets and more than 5,000 cylinder seals. The looting shocked world opinion and has since been regarded as an emblematic case of the destruction of cultural heritage in times of war. International Mobilization The episode prompted an international mobilization – involving Interpol, universities, Unesco and specialized missions – aimed at recovering the stolen works of art and strengthening the protection of Iraq’s cultural heritage. Fifteen years after the events, approximately 7,000 of the 15,000 looted objects were believed to have been recovered. These items were returned through domestic amnesty programs, customs seizures and police operations carried out across the world. Recovered Iconic Artefacts Major pieces such as the Warka Vase and Mask, the copper statue of Bassetki, as well as objects from the Nimrud treasure, were recovered – often buried or concealed by looters who had been unable to sell them. Several iconic Sumerian royal statues and cult objects were located abroad and subsequently repatriated through cooperation between Interpol, US authorities, museums and academic researchers. Despite the museum’s reopening in 2015 and ongoing restitution efforts, thousands of objects remain on the black market or are permanently lost, limiting our understanding of entire chapters of Mesopotamian history. The 2003 looting has now become a textbook case in debates over the protection of cultural heritage during wartime, influencing military standards, international law, and provenance policies in Western museums. It should be noted that numerous legal frameworks exist to safeguard heritage in times of conflict, including the 1954 Hague Convention and its 1999 additional protocols, as well as the 1970 UNESCO Convention. Moreover, international cooperation has enabled the mapping of archaeological looting networks – from trafficking routes and regional hubs to final markets – as well as the identification of the economic actors involved, including intermediaries, auction houses and collectors, and their links to organized crime and terrorism. Such international collaboration plays a crucial role in global efforts to protect cultural heritage and facilitates the recovery of stolen objects.

In our previous articles, we briefly explored the construction of the Grand Egyptian Museum and highlighted its major role as a research center. We also reviewed some of the extraordinary treasures it houses. But what of its economic, cultural, and national significance for Egypt? One of the Grand Egyptian Museum’s (GEM) primary roles is undoubtedly economic. It aims to attract tourists from across the globe, thereby playing a central part in the country’s economic dynamism. Situated near the Giza pyramids, the GEM is a cornerstone of Egypt’s new tourism strategy, with the goal of drawing up to 30 million visitors annually by 2030. This would place it among the world’s most visited cultural institutions. Such an influx is expected to revitalize ancillary sectors such as hospitality, catering, transport, and even small local businesses, creating thousands of direct and indirect jobs. The economic benefits of such a project would be – and already are – considerable, potentially accounting for up to 12% of Egypt’s GDP, according to preliminary estimates. Experts predict that, between 2025 and 2030, the GEM could contribute 20 to 25% of Egypt’s tourism growth. A Symbol of Cultural Sovereignty "A people who do not teach their history is a people without identity," said François Mitterrand. With the GEM, this statement takes on tangible meaning: for the first time, Egypt is reclaiming its history and its identity. It is the Egyptians themselves who tell their story and take charge of their destiny, and they are rightly proud. Listening to the testimonies of museum specialists and everyday visitors alike reveals the deep national pride the GEM inspires. Thirty-three years after its inception, the Grand Egyptian Museum stands as a monumental achievement for the country, transcending architecture and museology. It demonstrates the nation’s ability to honor its millennia-old heritage while confidently projecting itself into the modern world. By granting unprecedented access to the wonders of ancient Egypt, the GEM serves as a bridge across the ages, transforming the Pharaonic past into a living heritage and a source of inspiration and pride for all of Egypt. Restoring Its Scattered Treasures The positive effects of constructing such a monument were felt immediately. Its inauguration has reignited calls for the return of major Egyptian artefacts held in Western museums, notably the Rosetta Stone at the British Museum, the bust of Nefertiti at Berlin’s Neues Museum, and the Dendera Zodiac at the Louvre. Zahi Hawass, Egyptologist and former Minister of Antiquities, aptly noted that Egypt now boasts more than 22 museums meeting the highest international standards. He sought to challenge the common argument that the country lacks the necessary infrastructure to preserve its heritage. The Netherlands, for instance, recently announced the restitution of a 3,500-year-old stone head from the reign of Thutmose III, seized at an art fair in Maastricht in 2022. In conclusion, the construction of the GEM is celebrated in Egypt as a symbol of national unity and renaissance, reflecting the country’s ability to overcome challenges and fully valorize its heritage. It embodies the memory and continuity of Egyptian civilization, while serving as a platform for research and international collaboration in heritage preservation. It also positions Egypt as a leading nation and one of the Middle East’s foremost centers of cultural reference.

In our first article, we followed the steps of the Grand Egyptian Museum's construction and explored its technical department, responsible for the restoration of objects discovered by archaeologists. It's time to discover some of the treasures it holds. As soon as you push open the GEM's door, a majestic hall (the Atrium) of 10,000 square meters welcomes us under a glass roof and a grandiose staircase of 108 steps spanning an area of 6,000 square meters over 6 floors. The museum comprises 12 galleries and has a structure organized around three main themes: royalty, society, and beliefs, thus covering periods from the pre-dynastic era to the Greco-Roman era. A fabulous journey through 7000 years of history The Grand Hall is dominated by the colossal statue of Ramses II, discovered near ancient Memphis in 1820. 3000 years old, 11 meters high and weighing over 80 tons of red granite, the imposing statue seems to step forward to welcome us. Before the GEM, it stood at the entrance of Cairo's railway station in the square named after the pharaoh. It had to be placed inside the museum even before the hall's construction, as it was impossible to bring it through the doors due to its exceptional dimensions. As for the grand staircase, it is itself designed as a work of art and offers a breathtaking view of the pyramids. It is adorned with colossal statues of pharaohs, sarcophagi, and priceless objects arranged according to four precise themes following a spectacular staging: statues of kings and queens, places of prayer, the king's relationship with the gods, and finally the sarcophagi of kings and queens. At the top of the steps and all along the route, the highlight of the show is, of course, the breathtaking view of the pyramids. A Few Wonders The museum brings together the most beautiful treasures of ancient Egypt and contains thousands of pieces, all meticulously restored in situ, in the museum's laboratories. Furthermore, thousands of other pieces are awaiting their turn to be restored. Among these wonders is a floor dedicated to Tutankhamun. The young pharaoh, who died at 19, fascinates tourists worldwide as much as Egyptologists and other researchers. This is mainly due to the incredible treasure discovered intact in his tomb by archaeologist Howard Carter, whose discovery marked a decisive turning point in the history of Egyptology. Tutankhamun's treasure includes over 5000 objects displayed in 2 galleries spanning 7000 square meters. Among the fabulous pieces belonging to Tutankhamun is his famous funerary mask, a masterpiece of ancient Egyptian craftsmanship and goldsmithing. It is made of solid gold set with turquoise, lapis lazuli, quartz... and weighs nearly 10 kg. It was placed in the pharaoh's tomb to allow his soul to recognize his body in the afterlife. Also on display in the two galleries dedicated to him are his golden throne and his six war chariots, his three funerary beds, one of which is solid gold, and hundreds of objects (jewelry, amulets, clothing, etc.) intended to accompany him into the afterlife. The Boat of Khufu Another major attraction of the museum is the Khufu Boats Hall, where one can admire the pharaoh's solar boat, builder of the Great Pyramid. It measures 43.5 meters long by 5.9 meters wide and is over 4,600 years old. A symbolic object of Egyptian mythology linked to the cycle of Ra, the sun god, it is considered the oldest intact ship in the world. This masterpiece, made of cedar wood from Lebanon, highly prized in antiquity, was intended to transport the deceased king to the afterlife. It was found intact in a pit, but disassembled into 1224 pieces, like a puzzle. It took experts 10 years to reassemble it, as its mechanism contained neither screws nor nails. In our next article, we will study the museum's impact, a source of national pride, on Egypt's cultural influence and economy.

On November 1, 2026, twenty years after construction work began, the Grand Egyptian Museum, or GEM, finally opened its doors. It is the sixth-largest museum in the world and the largest ever dedicated to a single civilization. During a Pharaonic inauguration attended by numerous heads of state, Egyptian President Abdel Fattah al-Sisi presented the new museum as a gift from Egypt to the rest of the world. A History Marked by Obstacles The story of the GEM began in 1992, when Egypt’s then Minister of Culture, Farouk Hosny, proposed the creation of a new museum to replace the old Cairo Museum, which had become obsolete. The project aimed to bring together Egypt’s invaluable archaeological treasures, previously scattered across various sites. The foundation stone was laid in 2002, but construction work effectively began only in 2005. The project was beset with numerous obstacles and delays, notably due to the Arab Spring in 2011 and the Covid-19 pandemic. It also faced significant financial challenges, with the total cost exceeding one billion euros. Ultimately, on November 1, following close international cooperation—both financial and technical—the museum finally came to life with a grand inauguration. A Museum Worthy of the Nearby Pyramids The museum is located on the Giza Plateau, facing the pyramids, and covers an area of 500,000 square meters, equivalent to 70 football fields. In 2002, UNESCO and the International Union of Architects jointly launched an international architectural competition for the museum’s design. Among 500 proposals, the Irish firm Heneghan Peng Architects was selected. The museum’s entire architecture is inspired by the pyramids. Its triangular façade, rising 60 meters high, is composed of alabaster and translucent glass panels that evoke the color of desert sands and change appearance depending on the time of day or night. It is adorned with hieroglyphs and pyramid motifs engraved with the names of 140 pharaohs. The façade is visually aligned with the three nearby pyramids, and the entire structure harmoniously integrates the sacred geometry of the pharaohs within a modern architectural framework. The museum also benefits from cutting-edge technology designed to preserve, enhance, illuminate, and protect its twelve galleries. A Global Center for Conservation and Research Beyond serving as a showcase for the extraordinary history of ancient Egypt, the GEM positions itself as a major scientific hub, featuring a world-class archaeological research and conservation center. Covering 32,000 square meters, it is the largest and most sophisticated center dedicated to the restoration of archaeological artifacts worldwide. Operational since 2010, it includes 19 ultra-modern laboratories equipped with digital microscopes, X-ray and 3D imaging machines, spectroscopic technologies, and DNA identification systems. A total of 120 internationally trained conservators work there. Thanks to these exceptional technical resources, the GEM has played a crucial role in the transfer and in situ restoration of more than 57,000 artifacts from various Egyptian sites. The center also offers training programs for Egyptian and international art conservators, reinforcing its status as a reference center for heritage preservation in the Middle East. The complex also includes a conference center with a seating capacity of 1,000, designed to host international conferences and symposiums. It should also be noted that the museum was built with environmental sustainability in mind, using renewable energy sources that allow for energy savings of up to 60% and a reduction of water consumption by one third. A Museum for the Future The GEM does not merely preserve and restore the past; it reinvents it for future generations. It incorporates immersive technologies such as augmented reality, digital reconstructions, and interactive multimedia presentations, thereby adopting “the language of Generation Z,” according to Ahmed Ghoneim, Director General of the GEM. These innovations transform the traditional museum experience into a captivating journey through time. The museum also includes a 5,000-square-meter children’s museum designed to encourage learning through play using interactive screens. The GEM is therefore not only a sanctuary of heritage but also a vibrant space for intercultural dialogue and scientific research. After this brief overview of the creation of this extraordinary museum, it is time to step inside and discover some of the countless treasures it houses. This will be the focus of our next article: “Welcome to Ramses II.”

Like all museums in the world, the National Museum of Beirut is the guardian of a history grappling with the throes of oblivion. However, it is not limited to this mission: it also aims to be rooted in the present and oriented towards the future. It was in this spirit that the idea of opening an annex center to the Museum was born, intended to promote contemporary Lebanese culture, art, and artists. This center also aimed to ensure the sustainability of the National Museum of Beirut by generating revenue from cultural and social activities, as well as space rentals, among other things. This idea of a center dedicated to contemporary art emerged within the National Heritage Foundation. The annex pavilion project was championed by three women: Mona Hraoui, Rima Shéhadé, and Salma Es Said, wife of Nuhad Es Said, after whom the center is now named. However, like many projects in Lebanon, it had to face countless difficulties before seeing the light of day. Obstacles to its Construction From the very beginning of its construction on land adjacent to the National Museum of Beirut, the center encountered a major obstacle: the presence of groundwater. To avoid any risk of collapse, this problem had to be addressed even before work began. Once this obstacle was overcome, the project could finally start. And yet, no: the Covid-19 crisis then erupted, imposing a new halt to construction until the end of the pandemic. As if that weren't enough, the Beirut port explosion added to the long list of trials the country has faced. To these tragedies was further grafted the financial crisis of 2019, which seemed to deliver the final blow to the project. But that was without counting on the tenacity of the pavilion's three patrons: Mona Hraoui, Rima Shéhadé, and Salma Es Said. The Pavilion's Construction To raise the necessary funds for the project's continuation, the National Heritage Foundation, under the presidency of Mona Hraoui, launched a fundraising campaign, staking its own credibility. In collaboration with the committee in charge of the pavilion, an initial sum was raised, but it remained insufficient. It was then that Salma Es Said provided the supplementary funding, posing a single condition: to make the pavilion 'a true jewel.' This requirement was fully met, under the careful supervision of Rima Shéhadé, down to the smallest details. The pavilion finally saw the light of day in September 2024. It was named the Nuhad Es-Said Pavilion for Culture, in homage to Salma Es Said's late husband, a great art enthusiast and culture lover. Architecture and Heritage The pavilion is the work of the renowned and award-winning firm Raëd Abillama Architects, which successfully designed a versatile space capable of hosting both exhibitions and cultural events. In his conceptual approach, Raëd Abillama drew inspiration from the original plans by Pierre Leprince-Ringuet and Antoine Nahas, architects of the National Museum, which was initially intended to comprise two wings connected to the main building. Only the left wing had been built. Abillama therefore realized the right wing as a natural extension of the main building, using the same materials and based on the Museum's historical plans. This new wing is connected to the Museum by the Emir Maurice Chéhab corridor, in homage to the one who helped save the Museum during the war. It was Lebanese interior designer Jean-Louis Mainguy who had the idea to give it this name, in recognition of the decisive role played by the emir in the protection of national heritage. The Beginnings The first exhibition hosted by the Nuhad Es-Said Pavilion for Culture was 'Portes et Passages' (Doors and Passages), the result of close collaboration between the National Heritage Foundation, BeMA (Beirut Museum of Art), and the committee in charge of the pavilion. Currently, the pavilion houses two exhibitions: • From Venice to Beirut. The World in the Image of Man – The Pavilion of Lebanon at the Biennale Arte 2022 • Impressions of Paradise The history of the National Museum of Beirut and its annex, the Nuhad Es-Said Pavilion, once again proves — if further proof were needed — that Lebanon survives only thanks to the initiative, passion, and determination of committed men and women.

In the Middle East, museums are far more than mere stone settings for endangered masterpieces. They are places where memory, identity, and soft power games between states are constantly replayed. Some Levantine countries—though cradle to the greatest civilizations of antiquity—have been shaken by wars, revolutions, and shifting geopolitical balances. In these lands, every museum display case, every restored artifact becomes a political gesture, an act of national resilience. Museums serve as anchors for peoples in search of identity and a unified reading of their own history. In the Gulf region, the stakes are different. Art in general and museums in particular are indeed guardians of memory and traditions, yet they are also powerful tools of soft power and a way of improving citizens’ quality of life. Culture is seen as a key driver of progress and a pillar of the region’s future—hence the abundance of cultural initiatives and new museums showcasing state-of-the-art museological technology. This journey through selected museums of the Levant and the Gulf is a fascinating voyage spanning 7,000 years of history between ancient heritage and futuristic spaces that characterize Gulf institutions. Between these two poles lies complementarity and bridges connecting the past to a deliberately bright future designed for the next century. Unable to present all the museums of the region, we have chosen only a few that embody today’s museological reality. The National Museum Of Beirut We already began our journey with the National Museum of Beirut , which perfectly reflects both the fragility and the resilience of Levantine nations. Conceived in the 1940s as a project of a young independent state, it later found itself, decades on, at the heart of war—protected by concrete walls and cement blocks. Its gradual reconstruction in the 1990s staged the determination of a fragmented country to reconnect with its history and to reinterpret its reality beyond chaos. The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM) At the other end of the spectrum lies the Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM) , a monumental expression of Egypt ambition to project its power through heritage. Designed to be one of the largest archaeological museums in the world and a worthy neighbour to the pyramids, it represents a contemporary project of cultural and touristic influence. Behind its majestic facades, Egypt leverages seven millennia of history to reinforce its economy and its tourism sector. The Iraq Museum Farther east, the Iraq Museum tells a different story, that of a heritage taken hostage by war and looting. It embodies both the violence inflicted upon Iraq’s memory and the perseverance of those striving to recover and reassemble treasures scattered across black markets, private collections, and western museum vaults. The Louvre Abu Dhabi In the Gulf countries, history takes another turn. Even though museums are guardians of history and traditions, they are also part of a broader cultural strategy positioning the Arabian Peninsula as a new laboratory of cultural diplomacy through art and a hub of civilizational dialogue, soft power, ultimately serving the well-being of their citizens. In the United Arab Emirates, the Louvre Abu Dhabi exemplifies this approach. By importing a prestigious museum “name” such as the Louvre and creating their own iconic institutions, Gulf nations in general —and the UAE in particular—are positioning themselves as an artistic crossroads between Europe, Asia, and Africa. They aim to redefine the circulation of artworks, and take part in the symbolic rivalries with the world as well as the region’s major cultural capitals. In conclusion, following this thread from the Levant to the Gulf, we invite you to explore five museums as one would read a palimpsest, unfolding layers of history, ideology, architectural expression of power, and economics. Each of these institutions, in its own way, reveals how the societies of the region view themselves, narrate their stories, and envision their future. Next article: The Nuhad Es-Saïd Pavilion for Culture Read on the same topic The National Museum of Beirut, against all odds